Rhizome: Advocating a New Wave of Thought in Indian Theatre

Theatrical Background

Theatre forms a noteworthy cultural performance within a society. Hence, the study with regards to theatre would allow re-establishing history, comprehending the society and apprehend its identity. The consideration of the Indian theatre undeniably evokes the era of ancient theatre. This research paper attempts to put up a critical inspection with reference to the passage of Indian theatre from the ancient epoch to the modern epoch.

Bharata’s ‘Natyashastra’, a Sanskrit composition on Indian drama and dance informs that drama or theatre utilizes the eight fundamental emotions of joy, love, pride, sadness, anger, aversion, wonder, and fear. Rishi Bharat’s individual concept regarding dramatic theory considers ‘Natya’ as a blending of bhavas, rasas, abhinayas, vrittis, siddhis, dharmics, avaras, provrittis, song, instruments, and theatre-house.

However, a question crops up regarding the fact that although the Indians possess a well-advanced and well-cultivated theatrical history, the ancient theatre could not captivate the Indian folks. There exist two major probable reasons as regards this fact. Firstly, the instant availability of the role models and, secondly all the cultural modifications already occurring in the then urban India. These were the principal factors that affected the Indian English theatre or drama to pursue the western theatre chiefly in the facets related to stage and setting. Yet, the English vocabulary seemed problematic since few English words appeared incomprehensive in conveying specific concepts associated with the Indian culture like ‘sanyasa’ and ‘dharma’. Hence, the language barrier as regards to the Indo-Anglican theatre justifies a notable analysis.

In the early 1900s, an innovative theatre emerged in almost every Indian language that was predominantly influenced by the then widespread movements such as Marxism, symbolism, surrealism, and psychoanalysis. Thereafter, during the 1960s, the modern or contemporary Indian theatre was bestowed with a creative, wider, and versatile approach at each stage of originality by means of appropriate blending of diverse techniques and styles from the Sanskrit western drama or theatre. Some eminent artists such as Vijay Tendulkar, Badal Sircar, and Girish Karnad have accelerated the modernization of Indian theatre by utilizing folklores, legends, history, and myths with extraordinary outcomes. Some contemporary artists following such traditions include Mahesh Dattani and Manjula Padmanabhan.

However, almost every traditional theatre form includes a touch of social criticism as can be traced in Jatra and Tamasha theatres. Even, the theatre forms such as Ankia Nat and Rasleela (the theatres based on religion and temple) constitute the contemporary lifestyle, and secular and social virtues intimated via the vidushak (or the jester) or any other minor character.

Hence, it is evident that the traditional Indian drama or theatre bears an intimate connection with the modern Indian theatre. Nevertheless, the most notable factor regarding the traditional Indian theatre is the audience’s relationship with the performers or the actors.

The Concept of ‘Rhizome’

The term ‘rhizomatic learning’ was coined by the post-modern theorists, Felix Guattari and Gilles Deleuze, in their work. As per Botany, a rhizome is a plant structure growing underground and bearing both roots (generally, the plant portion growing underground), and shoots (generally, the plat portion growing up across the ground). Felix and Deleuze utilized ‘rhizome’ to elaborate the procedure of existence and development that emanates from a specific point of origin. According to Deleuze’s “horizontality” of thought, the rhizome stands for a linear, multiple, outspread, all-expansive, having no margins, centers, or limits (Mambrol, 2017). Rejecting the principle regarding the origin, or the “Father Principle”, Guattari and Deleuze argue regarding the absence of variation between the personal and the collective. In the traditional sense, the person has always been linked to desire whereas the collective has always been connected with the law. Instead, Guattari and Deleuze suggest the concept of “social desire”. This particular concept opines that desire is consistently in motion, always comprised of various components relying upon the circumstances. They propose that this concept appears like any machine rather than any drama. Desire does not signify lack, which indicates negativity. It is positive in its dynamic state. Hence, BWO (an acronym for Body Without Organs) is consistently in the procedure that involves formation, deformation, and then, reformation. The BWO itself bears rhizomatic attributes, which goes beyond deterritorialization (i.e., a point of desire) only to begin with a new track similar to a rhizome’s reterritorialization (i.e., spread).

In their book titled, ‘A Thousand Plateaus’, initially published in 1980, Guattari and Deleuze put forward the utilization of the metaphor concerning rhizome for comprehending the latest blending of electronic communication and print (Burnett & Dresang, 1999). Their history about communication is outlined in respect of three categories of books, all presently in use that includes- the root-book (i.e., earliest), radicle-system book (i.e., second), and the rhizome (i.e., most recent). Instances of the suggested innovative aesthetic where the principles regarding rhizome are implemented appear in handheld book form as well as in different digital formats. Both of these demonstrate the digital world’s hypertextual nature. Several scholarly articles have explained ‘literature’ or ‘theatre’ as citing to illustration or writing or other graphical representations exemplifying regarding style or form as well as expressing ideas regarding long-term or widespread interest. Scrutinizing the imbrication between rhizomatic and concept-mapping permits for the re-evaluation and blearing of the boundary existing between the structural and the post-structural discourses which involves a breakdown of the unproductive binary within literature (Kinchin & Gravett, 2020). Hence, literature or theatre may be explained as independent of the medium. As an example, one may cite the impact of rhizome introducing a new train of thought amidst the Indian theatre.

To understand the influence of rhizome over Indian theatre that brings forth a new wave of thought, one must understand the six basic principles regarding rhizome that may be summarized as: -

• Multiplicity

• Anti-genealogy

• Non-hierarchical

• Non-signifying

• Non-dimensional

Rhizome and Theatre

In dramatic arts, theatre or theatre is a category of art associated almost solely with the live performances where action is specifically planned to generate a logical and appreciable dramatic sense. The term “theatre” originates from the Greek term “theaomai”, which means “to see” which suggests that the performance or the presentation itself may be appealing to the audio or visual senses, as is hinted at by the replaceability of the two terms- “spectator” (that stems from those words signifying “to view”), and “audience” (that stems from those words signifying “to hear”)

The expansion of Theatre of the Oppressed, a theatrical workshop by Augusto Boal, among throughout America and abroad can be comprehended with reference to Guattari and Deleuze’s metaphor regarding the rhizome, whose wandering pattern of advancement and dissemination mirrors the Theatre of the Oppressed’s potential to proliferate itself within seventy nations and more around the world (Ferreira & Devine, 2011). In modern times, Boal’s theatrical workshop is deeply embedded in academia and has evolved in classrooms as well as across the streets, associating scholars, students, policy makers, administrators, and the community activists seeking human rights and social justice.

The Birth of Theatre

The earliest advent of theatre or drama can be traced back to Athens, Greece where the earliest hymns, termed as ‘dithyrambs’, were sung as a tribute to Dionysus (Greek Deity of Festivity, Wine and Pleasure). Such hymns were later reshaped as choral processions where the participants used to dress up in typical costumes and masks. In due course, specific chorus-members evolved to acquire distinct roles in the procession. Yet, they were not considered as actors in the perspective we would comprehend it. Later, in 6th century BC, the development occurred when Pisistratus, the dictator who governed Athens, set up a succession of innovative public festivals. Among these festivals, the ‘City Dionysia’ was a festival that involved entertainment held in reverence of God Dionysus and featured competitions regarding music, dance, singing, and poetry. Amidst the past Greek culture, the holy rituals of God Dionysus have been modified and appropriated to theatre performances (Berberović, 2015).

The Impact of Greek Theatre in Indian History

Clear references have been found regarding dramatic arts that existed in the ancient Indian literature specifying the presence of dramatic texts that the performers must have followed for stage representation and enactment. Such evidences may be traced in the Rig Veda that highlights the categories of plays obtainable in those times. It is with the beginning of 4th century B.C., that the plays, bearing the contemporary meaning of the term, can be found in India. The earliest plays available in India are that of Bhasa’s (Varadpande, 1981).

Yet, fortunately, several earliest Greek plays have persisted till date. It is believed that the Greek impact on Indian theatre preserve a train of thought which was constructed by the ancient Greek authors on India. For instance, Megasthenes (who visited India as a diplomat of Seleucus Nicator to Emperor Chandragupta Maurya’s imperial court) put down a very enchanting description with reference to ancient India which has sustained as detailed quotations within the works by the succeeding Greek writers. As per these writers, Bacchus-Dionysus (the primitive God of vegetation, wine and theatre) brought the science regarding cultivation and arts such as dancing and music to India (Varadpande, 1981). It is also known that the Indians have been specifically prominent among all other countries as devotees of song and dance thenceforth Dionysus and his assistant Bacchanals conducted their festive advancements across the Indian realms.

The Birth of ‘Yatra’ or ‘Jatra’

The famed theatre of West Bengal identified as ‘Jatra’ stems from the devotional forms of shows dating back to a few centuries. Towards the 19th century, these forms came up with India’s evolving independence movement where Jatra gained prominence as an essential voice for the social concerns related to the 20th century. The ‘bibek’ (a character or narrator who played the role of conscience) enhanced Jatra’s potency in advocating for the then social issues (Sen, 2019). As a form pertaining to theatrical performance, Jatra existed and gained ground in colonial as well as post-colonial Bengal. It survives at present as a famous folk-theatre genre staged by skilled or/and semi-skilled peripatetic acting troupes led by director-managers possessing total artistic authority over the presentation. Jatra also served as a significant communication tool in the rural communities.

However, Jatra possess its origin in the 16th century devotional Vaishnavism or “bhakti” that is a kind of monotheism initiated by Sri Chaitanya Mahaprabhu within West Bengal, India. This monotheism led emphasis on utter love and devotion for Lord Krishna. One of the earliest Bengali scholars, Dr. Nisikanta Chattopadhyaya, investigated the true nature with respect to Yatra. Chattopadhyaya opined that Jatra was initially linked with Yatras or the religious processions and thereafter developed as further secular theatrical practice (Sen, 2019).

The Birth of Contemporary Theatre

Concept of the ‘New Wave’ in Indian Theatre

Now, the term, ‘new wave’, is just an umbrella term encompassing movement in art, film, music, politics, and fashion. According to the Merriam-Webster dictionary, new wave cinema is explained by abstraction, improvisation, and subjective symbolism that often utilize experimental photographic techniques.

Main Attributes of New Wave Cinemas

Guy Westwell and Annette Kuhn, in their shared work, ‘Dictionary of Film Studies, opined new wave cinemas to be a global movement of the new cinemas starting during the 1960s. They also upheld their viewpoint that the new wave films were often connected to the film societies and is informed by filmaholics, progressive growth within documentary film-making, and present-day youth cultures and politics. They also suggested the principal attributes or features with reference to the new wave cinemas.

The main attributes concerning new wave cinemas include: -

• Production taking place outdoors (i.e., outside the film studios)

• Realistic location

• Small-scale budget

• Aesthetic as well as political radicalism

• Level of intertextuality (i.e., inter-connection between texts)

• Extent of self-flexibility (i.e., cause-effect relationship)

• Advance story-telling from linear narrative as well as standard narrative levels

• The status concerning the viewer as a component of movie narration. This signifies those common masses are depicted in such new wave cinemas in native setting which has attracted the common people towards the realistic endeavour with regard to new waves.

The Birth of Contemporary Indian Theatre

Each artistic expression possesses a significant social role. It forms a medium via which the common masses can convey, illustrate, and manifest the reality encompassing the world as well as voice against the repressive entities that administer our communities. The origins of modern or contemporary theatre are strongly linked with the establishment of IPTA (an acronym for Indian People’s Theatre Association) in 1942 at the time of Quit India Movement. With the foundation of IPTA, began the age of an innovative form of theatre that was entirely committed to the interests concerning the common masses and it was also completely non-commercial. Some artists, who realized the necessity to participate in the Indian political reformation and contribute towards the country’s independence movement, opt to utilize creativity to empower as well as popularize the spirit of nationalism. At this juncture, IPTA furnished a formal structure to this sentiment, debating in favour of the artists’ requirements to cease from restraining themselves to art for the sake of art itself. Be in theatre, cinema, literature or any other non-performing arts, that was the internationally the era of social realism while it was understood that art as well as culture must never be detached from life, yet should reflect it. Thus, Indian People’s Theatre Association contributed immensely towards the advancement of Indian nationalist consciousness. In fact, IPTA used to serve as a cultural platform that endeavoured in rejuvenating India’s diverse performative art forms and also attempted in bringing about a comprehensive development of nationalistic ardour amongst the Indians (Jash, 2019). Most members of IPTA bore leftist inclinations and so they were able to generate a bridge successfully with the common Indian masses via different performative narratives experienced in those periods. Thus, the IPTA has not only introduced diverse heritage of the folk traditions within the corpus of Hindustani or Indian theatre but also inculcated the sentiment amidst the common people that IPTA was moulding their dreams.

Since its inception in 1943, the Indian People’s Theatre Association has gone through several modifications. Firstly, the regional units developed following India’s Partition. The national section disintegrated in 1960 even as the fragment units continued to operate. Thereafter, the split within the CPI (an acronym for the Communist Party of India) brought about many offshoots like Jana Natya Mancha (set up by Safdar Hashmi) building up their own identity during the 1970s. Owing to his inclinations in theatre and politics, Safdar Hashmi blended the two with each other and persisted in emerging as an eminent political theatre artist. Hashmi, through his works, targeted to uncover the unscrupulous and corrupt operations of various organizations that also resulted in his untimely death. Since 1978, the Delhi-based JANAM (an acronym for the Jana Natya Mancha) has been amongst the most dynamic street theatre groups in the Indian sub-continent (Banerji, 2021). In 1979, JANAM was commissioned to generate the “DTC Ki Dhandhli” or The Corrupt Trappings of the DTC with regards to a dramatic bus-fare rise by DTC (an acronym for Delhi Transport Corporation). This translated short play proved to be instrumental in accumulating public opinion that raised voice against the financial mismanagements by the DTC which compelled the DTC in rolling back the bus-fare revisions.

Discussing about modern Indian theatre, Habib Tanvir, along with Safdar Hashmi, is amongst the prominent artists who requires no formal introduction. Being a distinguished writer, actor, producer, and director, Tanvir is observed as one of the pioneers of Hindustani or Indian theatre. In fact, Habib Tanvir was one of such unforgettable directors and contributors of the Indian People’s Theatre Association who endeavoured in taking Indian drama or theatre to the stature of Indian novel as well as Indian poetry (Agrawal, 2020). Tanvir accomplished in altering the concept regarding formula-oriented, larger-than-life theatre to a further pragmatic type theatre dealing with the contemporary social concerns. Habib Tanvir possessed an incredible perception of the freedom regarding expression as well as the social duty of the artists. In doing so, he conducted several experiments with the content and the form. Along with his empowering and collaborative approach, Tanvir devised a new episode in the history with reference to the Hindustani or Indian theatre.

Concept of the ‘New Wave’ in Indian Theatre

The Problem

There has been a lack of new thoughts in Indian theatre with major focus being devoted to surrealism, poetics, modernity and psychoanalysis- all of which are content-dependent and in the recent times have failed to give rise to new waves of thought.

The early days of Indian theatre saw a glorious period with Natyasashtra acting as the cornerstone. However, as the 15th century approached to an end, drama in India started to lose it glory and with the advent of the British in India, a glorious art came to an end. As the British Raj established their string foothold in India, theatre again rose to prominence with English theatre. During this time Bombay Palkhiwala and Bengali Babu entertained the people. With the passage of time, theatre changed its route as political activities took the centre stage and theatre became a weapon tinged with political thoughts like Marxism by the 1920s.

In the later years of the 1900s, English language theatre acted not as a theatre form, but as a link between the Hindi and non-Hindi dramas. During this time, all the playwrights tried to link themselves to Hindi production be it Girish Karnad in Kannada, or Badal Sircar in Bengali (Paul, 2017). Thus, the focus was more on the regional languages with B.V. Karanth, Prativa Agarwal and Vasant Dev acting as major translators.

It was during this time that a new form of theatre started to emerge in the streets of Kolkata. Sircar had foreseen the dull future of the society in Evam Indrajeet where the Bengali culture is seen to be suffering from an ‘eventless uniformity’ of daily lives. This monotonous life acts as a backdrop of Indrajeet’s life who is an odd-man in this lot. In the aftermath of Evam Indrajeet, we see that in plays like Baki Itihas and Sesh Nei, this new thought is repeatedly accusing the society for not doing anything for their social counterparts which includes the playwright himself. Along with this, came a new movement in theatre – Third Theatre which was heavily inspired by Grotowski and Barba. This was the era of post-industrialisation where the working class was the focus of the theatre and the artists started considering themselves as labourers and their work was nothing more than labour. Hence, there existed a little difference between the actors and the audience, an idea created by Odin Teatret.

However, such revolutionary ideas failed to yield more results as consumerism and a more hybrid culture was developed. Scholars even point to the fact that English language itself is a hybrid language (Ramin and Arvin, 2018) and any effort to use it for new thoughts and to preserve it leads to an inertness. Hence, a thought using the same language and creating the same artform leads to a deadlock.

Further new thoughts were added in Kutiyattam (Sullivan, 2007), stressing the role of women in theatre with a political thoughts as a medium (Madhavan, 2015; Purkayastha, 2015), and a complete new view advocated by comparative literature (Orsini, 2019). Hence, there is a lack of continuity of these thoughts to which we propose as Rhizome to be an alternative.

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